Ancient Greek and Roman Art and Architecture

Sicily, the largest Mediterranean island, has a long history, that starts around 8000 BC, but later there were Phoenician, Carthaginian, Greek and Roman periods. After the Roman Empire had fallen apart the Vandals tried to take over the island but failed. Finally, the Ostrogoths took possession. Mid of the 6th century Sicily was conquered by troops of the Byzantine Empire. After the advent of Islam, Sicily got attacked by the Arab forces. Raids seeking loot continued until the mid-8th century. A Muslim army was sent to the island in 827 but met with much resistance. So it took a century to conquer it and even later revolts constantly occurred In 1038 the Byzantines invaded the island supported by Norman mercenaries, led by Roger. In 1072, after the siege of Palermo, most of Sicily was under Norman control. Roger´s son Roger II raised the status +of the island to a kingdom in 1130. During this period, the Kingdom of Sicily was prosperous and powerful, The court of Roger II became melting out of culture from Europe and the Middle East. This attracted scholars, scientists, artists, and artisans. Muslims, Jews, Greeks, Lombards, and Normans cooperated and created some extraordinary buildings. In 1186 the last descendant of Roger, Constance of Sicily married Emperor Henry VI, the second son of Barbarossa. So the crown of Sicily was passed on to the Hohenstaufen Dynasty. Frederick II, the only son of Constance, was crowned King of Sicily at the age of four in 1198. He became "Stupor Mundi", one of the greatest and most cultured men of the Middle Ages. - Comiso was founded by Greek settlers from Syracuse in 642 BC. It was destroyed by the Romans, who erected thermae here. In 1693, the city was hit and devastated by an earthquake. Comiso was rebuilt in the same place. In 1934/35 archeologists discovered an antique mosaic and the ruins of a building next to the present townhall. The Roman thermal baths date back to the 2nd/3rd century a.C. They were used until the Byzantine period (5th century).

Sicily, the largest Mediterranean island, has a long history, that starts around 8000 BC, but later there were Phoenician, Carthaginian, Greek and Roman periods. After the Roman Empire had fallen apart the Vandals tried to take over the island but failed. Finally, the Ostrogoths took possession. Mid of the 6th century Sicily was conquered by troops of the Byzantine Empire. After the advent of Islam, Sicily got attacked by the Arab forces. Raids seeking loot continued until the mid-8th century. A Muslim army was sent to the island in 827 but met with much resistance. So it took a century to conquer it and even later revolts constantly occurred In 1038 the Byzantines invaded the island supported by Norman mercenaries, led by Roger. In 1072, after the siege of Palermo, most of Sicily was under Norman control. Roger´s son Roger II raised the status +of the island to a kingdom in 1130. During this period, the Kingdom of Sicily was prosperous and powerful, The court of Roger II became melting out of culture from Europe and the Middle East. This attracted scholars, scientists, artists, and artisans. Muslims, Jews, Greeks, Lombards, and Normans cooperated and created some extraordinary buildings. In 1186 the last descendant of Roger, Constance of Sicily married Emperor Henry VI, the second son of Barbarossa. So the crown of Sicily was passed on to the Hohenstaufen Dynasty. Frederick II, the only son of Constance, was crowned King of Sicily at the age of four in 1198. He became "Stupor Mundi", one of the greatest and most cultured men of the Middle Ages. - In Roman times Catania had a large amphitheatre (capacity 16.000) and this smaller "teatro romano". It fell into decline the sixth and seventh centuries and got exploited to obtain modest dwellings from the early Middle Ages .

A legend tells, that a city called Sybar existed at the time of the Trojan War. It was conquered by the Romans in the 3rd century BC, receiving the new name of Lupiae. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Lecce was sacked by the Ostrogoth troops of king Totila. In 549 it was taken by Byzantium and remained part of the Eastern Roman Empire for five centuries, interrupted by brief invasions by the Saracens, Longobards, Hungarians and Slavs. After the Norman conquest in the 11th century, Lecce regained commercial and political importance, flourishing in the subsequent Hohenstaufen and Angevine rule. From the 15th century, Lecce was one of the most important cities of southern Italy, and, starting in 1630, it developed into a centre of Baroque architecture. This was made possible by the soft tuff stone found in the area, perfect for that architecture. - During the construction of the Bank of Italy building, carried out in the early 20th century the ruins of thee Roman amphitheatre got discovered. It measured approximately 102 m × 83 m and could hold about 25,000 spectators. Today the tourist can find one third of the entire structure, the rest is still hidden in the basement of Piazza Sant'Oronzo.

Due to its location and importance, Benevento was an important base for Roman rule in southern Italy for centuries. After the expansion of the Lombards, Benevento became the seat of Lombard dukes but repeatedly fell into dependence on the Franks and the German emperors. In 840, Benevento was occupied by the Muslims for a few years. The city has been the seat of the Archbishopric of Benevento since 969. In 1047 it fell into the hands of Norman princes with the exception of the city, which Emperor Henry III gave to Leo IX in 1053. In the 11th and 12th centuries, four councils were held in Benevento. On February 26, 1266, in the Battle of Benevento, the Hohenstaufen Manfred, natural son of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, was defeated by Charles of Anjou, after which the latter seized Apulia, Sicily, and Tuscia. The Roman theater was built in the 2nd century. Abandoned in Longobard times, it was used for centuries as a quarry to extract building materials, but also to build new houses. The first excavations took place in the 1890s. After the expropriation of the houses built on its walls in the 1930s further excavations were carried out. In 1957 after significant restoration works the theatre became a public monument.

Due to its location and importance, Benevento was an important base for Roman rule in southern Italy for centuries. After the expansion of the Lombards, Benevento became the seat of Lombard dukes but repeatedly fell into dependence on the Franks and the German emperors. In 840, Benevento was occupied by the Muslims for a few years. The city has been the seat of the Archbishopric of Benevento since 969. In 1047 it fell into the hands of Norman princes with the exception of the city, which Emperor Henry III gave to Leo IX in 1053. In the 11th and 12th centuries, four councils were held in Benevento. On February 26, 1266, in the Battle of Benevento, the Hohenstaufen Manfred, natural son of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, was defeated by Charles of Anjou, after which the latter seized Apulia, Sicily, and Tuscia. The Roman theater was built in the 2nd century. Abandoned in Longobard times, it was used for centuries as a quarry to extract building materials, but also to build new houses. The first excavations took place in the 1890s. After the expropriation of the houses built on its walls in the 1930s further excavations were carried out. In 1957 after significant restoration works the theatre became a public monument.

The "Arena di Verona" was erected within the 1. century and is the third largest still existing Roman amphitheatre of the world. It is still in use today and pretty famous for the large-scale opera performances given here during the summer months. In Roman times the arena housed 30.000 people, today the maximum attendance is cut down to 15.000 people. In March the piazza was the meeting place for a group of Venezuelans, protesting against the politics of Nicolás Maduro, Venezuela´s president since 2013. During the summer months, you can hear and see this: www.youtube.com/watch?v=6EBgvyZ4oOs

Córdoba shares its history with so many cities in Southern Spain. It was Carthaginian and Roman (from 260BC on), later it belonged to the Byzantine Empire for two decade, got looted by the Vandals, before Visigoths conquered it in 572. In 711 it was taken by the by the Umayyad army and became a provincial capital. In the 10th century, when the Caliphate of Córdoba existed, the population grew upto 500.000, at that time it was one of the largest cities in the known world. Cologne may have had 12.000 inhabitants at that time. Christs, Jews and Muslims lived here together. In 1148 the city was taken and part of the Almohad Caliphate. The "Siege of Córdoba" by the forces of Ferdinand III, King of Castile, in 1236 marked the end of the Islamic rule over the city. After Ferdinand III had taken Córdoba, the Mezquita, which was the largest mosque of the world at that time, was converted into a Christian cathedral. The "Puente Romano" built around 45 BC across the Guadalquivir river by the Romans. It has been reconstructed at various times. Most of the present structure dates from the Moorish reconstruction in the 8th century.

Sicily, the largest Mediterranean island, has a long history, that starts around 8000 BC, but later there were Phoenician, Carthaginian, Greek and Roman periods. After the Roman Empire had fallen apart the Vandals tried to take over the island but failed. Finally, the Ostrogoths took possession. Mid of the 6th century Sicily was conquered by troops of the Byzantine Empire. After the advent of Islam, Sicily got attacked by the Arab forces. Raids seeking loot continued until the mid-8th century. A Muslim army was sent to the island in 827 but met with much resistance. So it took a century to conquer it and even later revolts constantly occurred In 1038 the Byzantines invaded the island supported by Norman mercenaries, led by Roger. In 1072, after the siege of Palermo, most of Sicily was under Norman control. Roger´s son Roger II raised the status +of the island to a kingdom in 1130. During this period, the Kingdom of Sicily was prosperous and powerful, The court of Roger II became melting out of culture from Europe and the Middle East. This attracted scholars, scientists, artists, and artisans. Muslims, Jews, Greeks, Lombards, and Normans cooperated and created some extraordinary buildings. In 1186 the last descendant of Roger, Constance of Sicily married Emperor Henry VI, the second son of Barbarossa. So the crown of Sicily was passed on to the Hohenstaufen Dynasty. Frederick II, the only son of Constance, was crowned King of Sicily at the age of four in 1198. He became "Stupor Mundi", one of the greatest and most cultured men of the Middle Ages. - The "Valle dei Templi", located on a ridge, just south of Agrigento, is where the Greek had founded the polis "Akragas" in 532 BC. It developed into one of the most important ancient Greek cities in Sicily. This importance is still visible in a number of monumental temples, built in the 5th century BC along the southern wall of the city. Over centuries most buildings decayed and were often used as a quarry. Excavation and restoration began mid of the 18th century when general interest in Greek antiquity arouse. So the ancient sites were attracting attention - and visitors. The so-called "Temple of Concordia" is one of the best preserved temples of Greek antiquity. The temple was built about 440 to 430 BC. Built on a pedestal. The temple was converted into a Christian basilica in the 6th century and thus survived the destruction of pagan places of worship. The church was also used after the abandonment of the city until the 17th century. In 1748 the building was profaned and then largely returned to their original state. All around the temple is an early Christian necropolis.

...where we found one sarcophag in each crypt. Probably of roman origin, now the shrines of the relics of Saint Leocard and his friend Saint Lucre.....

The area was inhabited by Etruscans until the arrival of the Celts, who held it from the 6th century BC until their defeat by the Umbri in 283 BC. In 268 BC the Roman Republic founded the colonia of Ariminum. The end of Roman rule was marked by the destruction caused by invasions and wars. When the Ostrogoths conquered Rimini in 493, Odoacer, besieged in Ravenna, had to capitulate. During the Gothic War (535–554), Rimini was taken and retaken many times. Under Byzantine rule, it was part of the Exarchate of Ravenna. In 728, it was taken with many other cities by Liutprand, King of the Lombards but returned to the Byzantines about 735. Pepin the Short gave it to the Holy See, but during the wars of the popes and the Italian cities against the emperors, Rimini sided with the latter. The Ponte di Tiberio (Tiberius Bridge) features five semicircular arches with an average span length of ca. 8 m. Construction work started during Augustus' reign and was finished under his successor Tiberius in 20 AD. The bridge was the only crossing of the Marecchia not destroyed by the retreating German army during the Battle of Rimini. The Tiberius Bridge, starting point of the Via Emilia, is still open to pedestrians today.

Saintes was a very important "city" in Roman times, named "Mediolanum". In Saintes are the remains of a large Roman amphitheatre and the triumphal "Arch of Germanicus". Just outside Saintes (Mediolanum), next to the Roman road to Bordeaux (Burdigala), that I walked, are the remains of the "Arènes de Thénac". Compared the the amphitheathre in Saintes this was probably a small "Off-Theater", though as well remains of "thermae" have been found nearby.

Due to its location and importance, Benevento was an important base for Roman rule in southern Italy for centuries. After the expansion of the Lombards, Benevento became the seat of Lombard dukes but repeatedly fell into dependence on the Franks and the German emperors. In 840, Benevento was occupied by the Muslims for a few years. The city has been the seat of the Archbishopric of Benevento since 969. In 1047 it fell into the hands of Norman princes with the exception of the city, which Emperor Henry III gave to Leo IX in 1053. In the 11th and 12th centuries, four councils were held in Benevento. On February 26, 1266, in the Battle of Benevento, the Hohenstaufen Manfred, natural son of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, was defeated by Charles of Anjou, after which the latter seized Apulia, Sicily, and Tuscia. In the 2nd century BC, the cult of Isis became popular in Egypt and spread throughout the Roman Empire. A center of the cult developed in Benevento. Already in the 19th century Egyptian artifacts were found several times. In 1903, several statues of Isis were found at the foot of a Longobard wall, which had been used as fill material for the wall's foundation. Even after 2000, more Egyptian artifacts were found during construction work. This is how the Egyptian section of the Museo del Sannio was founded. It is located in the Arcos Museum.

Due to its location and importance, Benevento was an important base for Roman rule in southern Italy for centuries. After the expansion of the Lombards, Benevento became the seat of Lombard dukes but repeatedly fell into dependence on the Franks and the German emperors. In 840, Benevento was occupied by the Muslims for a few years. The city has been the seat of the Archbishopric of Benevento since 969. In 1047 it fell into the hands of Norman princes with the exception of the city, which Emperor Henry III gave to Leo IX in 1053. In the 11th and 12th centuries, four councils were held in Benevento. On February 26, 1266, in the Battle of Benevento, the Hohenstaufen Manfred, natural son of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, was defeated by Charles of Anjou, after which the latter seized Apulia, Sicily, and Tuscia. In the 2nd century BC, the cult of Isis became popular in Egypt and spread throughout the Roman Empire. A center of the cult developed in Benevento. Already in the 19th century Egyptian artifacts were found several times. In 1903, several statues of Isis were found at the foot of a Longobard wall, which had been used as fill material for the wall's foundation. Even after 2000, more Egyptian artifacts were found during construction work. This is how the Egyptian section of the Museo del Sannio was founded. It is located in the Arcos Museum.

Colonia Copia Claudia Augusta Lugdunum (now Lyon) was an important Roman city in Gaul. It was the capital of the Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis. The Christianization took place very early. In 177, the Christian community sent a letter naming 48 of their number who had been martyred. In 843 it was ceded to Lorraine and then passed to the Kingdom of Burgundy, whose dominion was entrusted to the Archbishop of Lyon by Frederick Barbarossa in 1157. In 1312 Philip the Fair incorporated Lyon into the kingdom of France. Lyon was the scene of an urban revolt in 1436 when Charles VII increased taxation. The uprising, mainly of small merchants, lasted a total of two months. During the reign of Louis XI. Four fairs were set up, attracting merchants from all over Europe, especially Italy. Lyon became an important center for the spice trade and, more importantly, the silk trade after François I granted the weaving rights, which until then had been an Italian monopoly. Florentine immigrants also made Lyon a financial center for banking and insurance. - It is often said that the most beautiful cities are located on rivers. Lyon is situated on two rivers, the Rhone and the Saone, which meet in the south of the city. - On the Fourvière hill to the west of the city is a Roman theater that in the summer months is still used today for performances.

Colonia Copia Claudia Augusta Lugdunum (now Lyon) was an important Roman city in Gaul. It was the capital of the Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis. The Christianization took place very early. In 177, the Christian community sent a letter naming 48 of their number who had been martyred. In 843 it was ceded to Lorraine and then passed to the Kingdom of Burgundy, whose dominion was entrusted to the Archbishop of Lyon by Frederick Barbarossa in 1157. In 1312 Philip the Fair incorporated Lyon into the kingdom of France. Lyon was the scene of an urban revolt in 1436 when Charles VII increased taxation. The uprising, mainly of small merchants, lasted a total of two months. During the reign of Louis XI. Four fairs were set up, attracting merchants from all over Europe, especially Italy. Lyon became an important center for the spice trade and, more importantly, the silk trade after François I granted the weaving rights, which until then had been an Italian monopoly. Florentine immigrants also made Lyon a financial center for banking and insurance. - It is often said that the most beautiful cities are located on rivers. Lyon is situated on two rivers, the Rhone and the Saone, which meet in the south of the city. - The "Amphithéâtre des Trois Gaules" was part of the "Ara trium Galliarum", the sanctuary of the three Gauls. The sanctuary served the worship of the Roma and Augustus by the Gallic tribes, which were organized into three provinces (Gallia Belgica, Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Lugdunensis) and whose central place was Lugdunum. The amphitheater is located at the foot of the hill of La Croix-Rousse.

Founded in a loop of the Doubs River, the town played an important role during the Roman Empire period under the name of Vesontio. Since 1032 Besançon and the entire County of Burgundy became part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. Archbishop Hugo von Salins, with imperial support, became ruler of the city, which he led into a period of prosperity. After his death in 1066, however, it falls into a long crisis caused by succession struggles. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the population defied the power of the archbishops and finally gained their municipal independence in 1290. Besançon retained the status of a free city for almost 400 years. The Free Counts of Burgundy, who had gained dominion over Franche-Comté, became the protector of the Free City, which prospered during this period. Louis XI confirmed the town charter in early 1481 and ordered the university to be transferred from Dole to Besançon. With the beginning of the Renaissance, Franche-Comté fell back to the German Empire. Emperor Charles V fortified Besançon and made the city a bulwark for his empire. The Porte Noire is a Roman triumphal arch. It is dated to the reign of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. It is believed that the depictions of war show the victories of his co-emperor Lucius Verus in the Roman–Parthian War of 161–166. Under the Merovingian dynasty, the arch was used as a fortification. Originally brightly colored, the arch was blackened by centuries of fire and has been known by its current name since the 11th century.

Palencia was called Pallantia in ancient times and was the capital of a Celtiberian tribe. Palencia probably became the seat of a bishop as early as the 3rd century, and the city experienced its first heyday under the Visigoths in the 6th and 7th centuries. In the 8th century, the Arab-Moorish armies conquered the area around Palencia. In the 11th century the city was reconquered by the Christians (reconquista). The greatest supporter at the beginning of the 13th century was the Castilian King Alfonso VIII. Already during his lifetime, but mainly after his death (1214), the existing cathedral school was converted into one of the first universities in Europe. The "Casa del Cordón" is a former inn, built in the 16th century. The house in the Renaissance style is called the "House of the Cord" because the portal is decorated with the Cord of the Franciscans.Since 1997 it has housed the "Museo Arqueológico Provincial". 2nd half of the 2nd century / marble

Palencia was called Pallantia in ancient times and was the capital of a Celtiberian tribe. Palencia probably became the seat of a bishop as early as the 3rd century, and the city experienced its first heyday under the Visigoths in the 6th and 7th centuries. In the 8th century, the Arab-Moorish armies conquered the area around Palencia. In the 11th century the city was reconquered by the Christians (reconquista). The greatest supporter at the beginning of the 13th century was the Castilian King Alfonso VIII. Already during his lifetime, but mainly after his death (1214), the existing cathedral school was converted into one of the first universities in Europe. The "Casa del Cordón" is a former inn, built in the 16th century. The house in the Renaissance style is called the "House of the Cord" because the portal is decorated with the Cord of the Franciscans.Since 1997 it has housed the "Museo Arqueológico Provincial". The sea god Oceanus and two Nereids surrounded by fish and dolphins.