Medievl Crucifixes

A church existed here in 758. This church, dedicated to Mary, as well as the village were given to the Bishop of Piacenza by Lord Magnus in 789. The village stayed under the control of the Bishops for the next 430 years. This church got severely damaged by the earthquake in 1117. The rebuilding started soon after got completed in only five years. The consecration of the new building took place here in 1122. From the early years upto the time, when the "Canons Regular" moved in, this church was a "pieve", a parish church where people got baptised. Not all churches had that privilege. Around the cloister, where the Canons once lived, reading the Breviary, today is a little museum. One of the highlights exhibited here is a medieval crucifix.

KOLUMBA is the art museum of the Archdiocese of Cologne, originally founded in 1853. During WWII the museum´s collection got evacuated and was saved. Upto 2007 the museum was located near the cathedral. The site of the muesum´s new home was occupied by the Church of St. Columba, which was destroyed in WWII. The new award winning structure designed by Swiss architect Peter Zumthor, built for the museum now shares its site with the ruins of the Gothic church. The museum is known for very interesting exhibitions, that are altered several times over the year displaying the own collection in changing contexts. www.kolumba.de/?language=eng

KOLUMBA is the art museum of the Archdiocese of Cologne, originally founded in 1853. During WWII the museum´s collection got evacuated and was saved. Upto 2007 the museum was located near the cathedral. The site of the muesum´s new home was occupied by the Church of St. Columba, which was destroyed in WWII. The new award winning structure designed by Swiss architect Peter Zumthor, built for the museum now shares its site with the ruins of the Gothic church. The museum is known for very interesting exhibitions, that are altered several times over the year displaying the own collection in changing contexts. 12th century ivory crucifix (detail) - (see prev. upload) www.kolumba.de/?language=eng

Tongeren, founded 15BC under the name of "Aduatuca Tungrorum", is the oldest town in Belgium. The Romans set up a military camp, that was later abandoned, - but the settlement, that had grown around the camp developed into an important trading center near the Roman road linking Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (Cologne) to Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer). Though strongly fortified the Franks sacked the town in 275. The Roman reign endet when the town got destroyed in 451 probably by the Huns. At that time a seat of a bishop existed here already. This see later moved on to Maastricht (595) and finally to Liege (718). In 881 Tongeren was raided and looted by the Normans. The largely destroyed city was rebuilt in the 10th century. Tongeren prospered but in 1677 Louis XIV’s troops blew up the city walls and burned the town down. It took the town two centuries to recover from this. Where the Onze-Lieve-Vrouwebasiliek stands now, was the bishopric see with Saint Maternus and Saint Servatius, the first bishops of the diocese founded here. In Carolingian times a collegiate convent existed and a pre-Romanesque church was erected, that later got replaced by a Romanesque structure. This church burned down during a war, fought by the prince-bishop of Liège, the Count of Loon, the Duke of Brabant and the French King. Following the complete demolition of the burnt church, the construction of the large-scale gothic collegiate and town church began in 1240. It was completed in its present form in the 16th century. Since some years the basilica´s treasures are displayed in the "Teseum", a museum, located in the building of the former collegiate, that adjoins the church. Here is a large Romanesque crucifix. The place of the electrical joint box is - not really perfect. teseum.be/en

Tongeren, founded 15BC under the name of "Aduatuca Tungrorum", is the oldest town in Belgium. The Romans set up a military camp, that was later abandoned, - but the settlement, that had grown around the camp developed into an important trading center near the Roman road linking Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (Cologne) to Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer). Though strongly fortified the Franks sacked the town in 275. The Roman reign endet when the town got destroyed in 451 probably by the Huns. At that time a seat of a bishop existed here already. This see later moved on to Maastricht (595) and finally to Liege (718). In 881 Tongeren was raided and looted by the Normans. The largely destroyed city was rebuilt in the 10th century. Tongeren prospered but in 1677 Louis XIV’s troops blew up the city walls and burned the town down. It took the town two centuries to recover from this. Where the Onze-Lieve-Vrouwebasiliek stands now, was the bishopric see with Saint Maternus and Saint Servatius, the first bishops of the diocese founded here. In Carolingian times a collegiate convent existed and a pre-Romanesque church was erected, that later got replaced by a Romanesque structure. This church burned down during a war, fought by the prince-bishop of Liège, the Count of Loon, the Duke of Brabant and the French King. Following the complete demolition of the burnt church, the construction of the large-scale gothic collegiate and town church began in 1240. It was completed in its present form in the 16th century. Since some years the basilica´s treasures are displayed in the "Teseum", a museum, located in the building of the former collegiate, that adjoins the church. Christ´s head (from a crucifix, that got lost), carved 1060-1070. teseum.be/en/

Lindau, located near the borders to Austria and Switzerland, was mentioned first time in 882 when a nunnery was founded here. The old town is on an island, which meanwhile is connected with the mainland by a road bridge and a railway dam. The church of St. Stephan was built around 1180, Franciscans founded a monastery here in 1224. In 1274/75 Lindau became an Imperial Free City under King Rudolf I. Lindau became Protestant in 1528. The nunnery remained Catholic while the Franciscan monastery, from which the first Reformation preachers came, was closed. During the Thirty Years' War, Lindau was unsuccessfully besieged by Swedish troops in 1646/47. Between 1445 and 1761, 18 people were indicted in witch trials in Lindau. The last victim of the witch hunt was Maria Madlener, who was executed on August 4, 1730. St. Stephan, founded 1180, is the largest church on the island, located next to the Catholic Münster Unserer Lieben Frau right on the marketplace. After several expansions, the church lost its Romanesque facade in 1506, but inside the building the Romanesque basilica can still be seen in the otherwise Rococo church.Since 2000 this wonderful gothic crucifix is displayed in the side aisle.

Cologne is the fourth-largest city in Germany - and one of the oldest. A Germanic tribe, the Ubii, had a settlement here, this was named by the Romans "Oppidum Ubiorum". In 50 AD, the Romans founded "Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium", the city then became the provincial capital of "Germania Inferior". The construction of a three-aisled St. Severin basilica, replacing a Carolingian church, started in the 10th century over a Roman necropolis. At about 1230 the choir was extended over the hall crypt. The new choir got consecrated in 1237. Around 1500 the Romanesque church got reconstructed in Gothic style. The large crucifix (height 2.32 m) may have been here already at that time, as it is dated to the 14thj century. It is a "Crucifixus dolorosus" (aka "Y-cross"), of which the oldest one is still in the near "St. Maria im Kapitol". This type was very popular in the Rhineland areas during that time and a couple of them still exist. Typical of the "Crucifixi dolorosi" is the body of Christ hanging on a Y-shaped tree fork with his head falling low over his chest. His sinewy arms stretch more upward than sideways, his thin body is strongly bent and deeply sunken below the breastbone, with prominently protruding ribs and a gaping wound in his side The impression of the painted figure probably horrified the pious onlookers.

Soest was one of the major cities in Westphalia during the 11th./12th century, having a population of around 10.000. Founded (like Erwitte and Paderborn to the east) on the ancient "Hellweg" (=Saltway), Soest played a major role within the Hanseatic League. Once it was even the capital of Westphalia - and (1531) a centre of Protestant Reformation in the area. The town centre has more than 600 listed buildings and a couple of old churches. The "Patrokli Dom" was the church of the canonical foundation, which existed from the 10th century until its abolition in 1812. Since 1823 the church has been the parish church of the St. Patrokli parish. The triumphal cross hangs down over the altar, which contains the relics of Saint Patroclus, which were transferred from Troyes to Soest in 964 by Bruno I, Archbishop of Cologne. The cross is 2.12 m high and dates from around 1400. The images on the square ends of the cross beams on the front represent evangelists. - PiP.

There is a legend around the foundation of the Walsrode Monastery by Count Wale. When the count had to leave his nearby castle he got stuck in the swamp with his wagon in the area of today's Walsrode. He saw this as a divine sign to buy the place and found a monastery there. He named the place "Walesrode" The settlement that developed around the monastery was repeatedly caught up in the military conflicts from 1371 onwards. The village was helplessly exposed to the frequent looting and pillaging by the troops and was burned down by soldiers from Bremen in 1381. The citizens were allowed after that by the Saxon dukes to build fortifications. They laid out a large moat and erected four city gates. The Reformation was very slow to take hold in the area. Duke Ernst sent the preacher Henning Kelp to Walsrode around 1528 so that the monastery would be reformed, but the resistance of the canonesses and the rural population continued for decades. It was not until 1574 that the Reformation was considered complete in the monastery of Walsrode. The "Stadtkirche", dedicated to "St. John the Baptist" was erected in classicist style 1848 -1850. There were at least three predecessor churches, built in the 10th, 12th and 15th centuries. The "Walsroder Kruzifix" ("Walsrode crucifix"), carved around 1500 from the studio of the artist Hans Brüggemann, who was born around 1480 in Walsrode. It is known especially for the "Bordesholm Altar", now in the Schleswig Cathedral.

The area around Lübeck, today a large city with a population of more than 200,000, had been settled by Slavs since the 7th century. Slavs had a settlement north of the present city called "Liubice", which was razed by the pagan Rani tribe in 1128. 15 years later Adolf II, Count of Schauenburg and Holstein, founded the modern town as a German settlement on the river island of Bucu. He built a new castle, first mentioned as existing in 1147. Adolf II had to cede the castle to the Duke of Saxony, Henry the Lion, in 1158. After Henry's fall from power in 1181, the town became an Imperial city. Emperor Barbarossa ordained that the city should have a ruling council of 20 members. With the council dominated by merchants, trade interests shaped Lübeck's politics for centuries. In the 14th century, Lübeck became the "Queen of the Hanseatic League", being by far the largest and most powerful member of that medieval trade organization. In 1375, Emperor Charles IV named Lübeck one of the five "Glories of the Empire", a title shared with Venice, Rome, Pisa, and Florence. Conflicts about trading privileges resulted in fighting between Lübeck (with the Hanseatic League) and Denmark and Norway – with varying outcome. While Lübeck and the Hanseatic League prevailed in conflicts in 1435 and 1512, Lübeck lost when it became involved in a civil war that raged in Denmark from 1534 to 1536. From then on Lübeck's power slowly declined. The city remained neutral in the Thirty Years' War, but the devastation from the decades-long war and the new transatlantic orientation of European trade caused the Hanseatic League – and thus Lübeck with it – to decline in importance. However, Lübeck still remained an important trading town on the Baltic Sea. In 1160 Henry the Lion moved the bishopric of Oldenburg to Lübeck and endowed a cathedral chapter. In 1163 a wooden church was built, however, at the beginning of the 13th century, it was no longer sufficient to meet the representative demands of the self-confident burghers. St. Marien was built 1250 - 1350. It has always been a symbol of the power and prosperity of the Hanseatic city. It situated at the highest point of the island that forms the old town. Gothic cathedrals in France and Flanders made of natural stone were the models for the new construction of Lübeck's three-nave basilica. St. Marien epitomizes North German "Brick Gothic" and set the standard for many churches in the Baltic region. The church embodied the towering style of Gothic architecture using brick. The incentive for the City Council to undertake such an enormous project was rooted in the bitter dispute with the Lübeck bishopric. As a symbol of the long-distance merchants' desire for freedom and the secular power of the city, which had been free of the Empire since 1226, the church building in the immediate vicinity of Lübeck's city hall and the market square was intended to clearly and uncatchably surpass in size the city's bishop's church, Lübeck Cathedral. The large crucifix is the work of the German artist Gerhard Marcks (1889 - 1981), who was one of the Bauhaus masters in the 1920s.

The area around Lübeck, today a large city with a population of more than 200,000, had been settled by Slavs since the 7th century. Slavs had a settlement north of the present city called "Liubice", which was razed by the pagan Rani tribe in 1128. 15 years later Adolf II, Count of Schauenburg and Holstein, founded the modern town as a German settlement on the river island of Bucu. He built a new castle, first mentioned as existing in 1147. Adolf II had to cede the castle to the Duke of Saxony, Henry the Lion, in 1158. After Henry's fall from power in 1181, the town became an Imperial city. Emperor Barbarossa ordained that the city should have a ruling council of 20 members. With the council dominated by merchants, trade interests shaped Lübeck's politics for centuries. In the 14th century, Lübeck became the "Queen of the Hanseatic League", being by far the largest and most powerful member of that medieval trade organization. In 1375, Emperor Charles IV named Lübeck one of the five "Glories of the Empire", a title shared with Venice, Rome, Pisa, and Florence. Conflicts about trading privileges resulted in fighting between Lübeck (with the Hanseatic League) and Denmark and Norway – with varying outcome. While Lübeck and the Hanseatic League prevailed in conflicts in 1435 and 1512, Lübeck lost when it became involved in a civil war that raged in Denmark from 1534 to 1536. From then on Lübeck's power slowly declined. The city remained neutral in the Thirty Years' War, but the devastation from the decades-long war and the new transatlantic orientation of European trade caused the Hanseatic League – and thus Lübeck with it – to decline in importance. However, Lübeck still remained an important trading town on the Baltic Sea. St. Aegidien was first mentioned in 1227. There may have even been an earlier wooden church between 1172 and 1182 under Bishop Heinrich I of Brussels, who had been abbot of the monastery of St. Aegidien in Braunschweig. The church, which originally had a single nave displays the typical features of brick Gothic architecture. The interior of the church, after the completion of the structure, has also been changed by regular renewals and renovations over the centuries, one of the oldest surviving of which took place in 1645. The damaged crucifix is probably from the Gothic period, when the imagery of the agony of the Crucified prevailed. The feet are pierced by a nail, which was common since about 1260.

Ratzeburg is known as an "island town" due to the location of its old town in the middle of Lake Ratzeburg and its connection with the mainland, which is only via three dams. The town was founded on the island in the 11th century by the local ruler, Prince Ratibor of the Polabians, who was nicknamed Ratse. In 1044 missionaries led by the monk Ansverus came into the region and built a monastery. In 1066 during a pagan rebellion, the monstery was destroayed and the monks were stoned to death. Ansverus was canonised in the 12th century and his relics were entombed in the Ratzeburg cathedral. Heinrich der Löwe (Henry the Lion) became the ruler of the town in 1143 and established a bishopric in 1154. The church, erected between 1160 and 1220, is located on the highest point of the northern tip of Ratzeburg's old town island. The cathedral was donated by Heinrich dem Löwen as the bishop's church of the Ratzeburg diocese. The impressive building, erected between 1160 and 1220, is located on the highest point of the northern tip of Ratzeburg's old town island. The cathedral was donated by Henry the Lion as the bishop's church of the Ratzeburg diocese. The cathedral is a three-nave Romanesque basilica with a transept, a Gothic cloister of the attached monastery (1251) on the north side and a massive west tower. Some elements of the original Romanesque construction were appropriately adapted during the Gothic period. A comprehensive restoration of the cathedral took place in the second half of the 19th century. After lightning struck during a thunderstorm in 1893, parts of the structure were destroyed by fire. Subsequent restorations were carried out until 1899. The last major restorations (1953-1966) restored the original condition. The "Triumphal Crucifix" is dated to the 13th century.

Ratzeburg is known as an "island town" due to the location of its old town in the middle of Lake Ratzeburg and its connection with the mainland, which is only via three dams. The town was founded on the island in the 11th century by the local ruler, Prince Ratibor of the Polabians, who was nicknamed Ratse. In 1044 missionaries led by the monk Ansverus came into the region and built a monastery. In 1066 during a pagan rebellion, the monstery was destroayed and the monks were stoned to death. Ansverus was canonised in the 12th century and his relics were entombed in the Ratzeburg cathedral. Heinrich der Löwe (Henry the Lion) became the ruler of the town in 1143 and established a bishopric in 1154. The church, erected between 1160 and 1220, is located on the highest point of the northern tip of Ratzeburg's old town island. The cathedral was donated by Heinrich dem Löwen as the bishop's church of the Ratzeburg diocese. The impressive building, erected between 1160 and 1220, is located on the highest point of the northern tip of Ratzeburg's old town island. The cathedral was donated by Henry the Lion as the bishop's church of the Ratzeburg diocese. The cathedral is a three-nave Romanesque basilica with a transept, a Gothic cloister of the attached monastery (1251) on the north side and a massive west tower. Some elements of the original Romanesque construction were appropriately adapted during the Gothic period. A comprehensive restoration of the cathedral took place in the second half of the 19th century. After lightning struck during a thunderstorm in 1893, parts of the structure were destroyed by fire. Subsequent restorations were carried out until 1899. The last major restorations (1953-1966) restored the original condition. The "Triumphal Crucifix" is dated to the 13th century. Christ´s face.

Anklam was originally a Wendish fortress, as there was a Scandinavian and Wendish settlement here in the early Middle Ages. Later the town became part of the Duchy of Pomerania. During the German eastward expansion, the abandoned fortress was developed into a settlement. The town has significance as a shipping port on the river Peene. It was elevated to the status of a town in 1244 and joined the Hanseatic League in the same year and prospered through membership. The town suffered greatly during the Thirty Years' War when Swedish and imperial troops fought over it for twenty years. During this and subsequent wars, the town was repeatedly ravaged by fires and the plague. After the war, Anklam became part of Swedish Pomerania in 1648 but in 1676 it was conquered by Frederick William of Brandenburg. In 1713 Anklam was sacked by soldiers of the Russian Empire. With the Stockholm Treaty of 1720, the southern parts of the town were ceded to Prussia, while a smaller part north of the Peene remained Swedish. - The Marienkirche was first mentioned in 1296. The construction probably began 40 years earlier. It was a Romanesque church with a double tower, which can be classified as much older and was then rebuilt in Gothic style. The Romanesque tower is still recognisable in the masonry of its Gothic successor. By the end of the 15th century, St. Mary's Church had acquired its present appearance. The design of the tower changed over time. In 1816, the pointed spire, which had been destroyed by fire, was replaced by a lower pyramidal roof. In 1884, the low spire also burnt down after a lightning strike, whereupon the four gables of the tower were rebuilt and substantially raised, and the Marienkirche was provided with a Gothic pointed spire, which reached a height of about 100 metres. The new spire was completed in 1888. During a bombing raid in 1943, this construction was destroyed and only three of the former four gables remained standing. After the war, the tower was given a simpler gable roof with only two gables and today has a height of 64 metres. Much of the furnishings was removed during the Second World War. It did not save them, however, because most of it disappeared there. The main altar was created after the WWII by using the damaged (and empty!) altarpiece with four panel paintings and a large medieval crucifix. The large crucifix dates from the late Middle Ages. The panel paintings were originally the backs of the hinged side wings. They date from the early 16th century and show scenes from the life of Mary. On the upper left is a Christmas scene. The "Presentation in the Temple" is shown at the bottom right. According to Jewish tradition, Mary brings two doves as a sacrifice to the temple. At the bottom left, the picture shows the death of Mary. Surrounded by the apostles, she lies on her deathbed.

A Slavic fortress of the Wends was mentioned in 1107. When Polish Duke Bolesław III conquered Pomerania, he brought Bishop Otto of Bamberg to the country for Christianisation. Otto stayed here in 1128 to baptize the Slavs. In 1128, Otto undertook another missionary journey to Pomerania, during which he again stayed in Cammin. Duke Wartislaw I, who ruled between 1121 and 1135, had his residence in Cammin - thus this was the first known seat of a Pomeranian duke. The bishopric of Cammin was founded by Henry the Lion in 1175 with Bishop Konrad I of Salzwedel. At this time, Duke Casimir I had St. John's Cathedral built. Brandenburg troops destroyed the town in 1273, which was rebuilt a year later with the participation of German immigrants. Duke Barnim I granted city rights (Lübsches Stadtrecht) in 1274. In 1308, the city, including the cathedral, was partially destroyed as a result of disputes between the Margrave of Brandenburg and the Duke of Pomerania. A predecessor of the cathedral was a wooden church, built in 1176 It was here that the Pomeranian bishopric received its name, the Diocese of Cammin. Cammin remained the bishop's seat until 1810. The church was originally built in Romanesque style. Around 1250 the southern portal was built, but in 1308 the unfinished church building was destroyed by the Brandenburg army. The construction of the basilica continued in the Gothic style. After 1310, arcades were built on the north side, and in the years 1325 to 1350, rooms were built in the east wing of the cathedral. At the beginning of the 14th century the Gothic steeple was erected. After the Reformation the church became part of the Pomeranian Evangelical Church in 1535. It remained Lutheran until 1945. During the Thirty Years' War the interior was destroyed and the tower collapsed. In 1802 the Gothic tower was demolished. In 1855 renovation works were carried out and a new bell tower in neo-Gothic style was built. The cathedral treasury was completely lost in 1945. The Gothic crucifix dates from the late 15th century.

After Duke Boleslaw III (aka "Boleslaus the Wry-mouthed") had captured the tonws along the Balitic sea in 1107 the area became part of the Duchy of Pomerania, a vassal state of Poland and later of Denmark in 1185. It became part of the Holy Roman Empire from 1227. In 1266, the growing town was granted a charter (Lübsches Stadtrecht), autonomy and multiple privileges to attract German settlers from the west. The city became a member of the Hanseatic League in 1386. As a result of German colonization, the town became mostly German-speaking. In 1516 local Germans enforced a ban on buying goods from Slavic speakers. It was also forbidden to accept native Slavs to craft guilds. In 1531 riots took place between supporters and opponents of the Protestant Reformation. In 1534 the city became mostly Lutheran under the influence of Johannes Bugenhagen. The city was granted to Brandenburg-Prussia after the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. The "Katedra Niepokalanego Poczęcia Najświętszej Maryi Panny" (Immaculate Conception) was built between 1300 and 1333 as a three-nave basilica of the brick Gothic style. The massive, 56 meter high tower was built on the west side. From 1534 to 1945 it served as the main church of the Lutheran congregation. Since 1972 it has been the cathedral of the new diocese of Koszalin-Kołobrzeg. The large crucifix dates from the 14th century.

Already in the 7th century, it was the location of a fortified Slavonic settlement, at a ford in the Vistula river. Thorn was established in 1231 under the administration of the Teutonic Order. The Teutonic Order had been called earlier by the Polish Duke Conrad of Mazovia to Christianize the pagan Baltic Pruzzes. However, the Order became active only after Emperor Frederick II granted it the right to rule over the land to be conquered in 1226. The foundation stone of the city of Thorn was laid in 1231 and soon after immigrants from Westphalia populated the town. In the 14th century, Thorn joined the Hanseatic League. The Order's efforts to simultaneously expand its sovereignty and control trade led to warlike conflicts. The city was captured by Poland in 1410 during the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War however, after the First Peace of Thorn was signed in 1411, the city fell back to the Teutonic Order. In the 1420s, Polish King Władysław II Jagiełło built the Dybów Castle, located in present-day left-bank Toruń. In 1440, the gentry of Thorn co-founded the Prussian Confederation to further oppose the Knights' policies. The Confederation rose against the Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights in 1454 and its delegation submitted a petition to Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon asking him to regain power over the region as the rightful ruler. These events led to the Thirteen Years' War. The citizens of the city conquered the Teutonic castle and dismantled the fortifications. In May 1454, a ceremony was held in Toruń, during which the nobility, knights, landowners, mayors, and local officials solemnly swore allegiance to the Polish King. During the war, Toruń financially supported the Polish Army. The Thirteen Years' War ended in 1466, with the Second Peace of Thorn, in which the Teutonic Order renounced any claims to the city and recognized it as part of Poland. During the Great Northern War (Deluge), the city was besieged by Swedish troops. In the second half of the 17th century, tensions between Catholics and Protestants grew. In the early 18th century about half of the population, especially the gentry and middle class, was German-speaking and Protestant, while the other half was Polish-speaking Roman Catholic. The old town of Torun is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. - St. Jakub (St. James) was built from 1309 to the 15th century. The cornerstone for the construction was laid by Bishop Herman in 1309. In the same year, the construction of the presbytery began, which was covered with a stellar vault, In the 14th century, the parish was started to be managed by the cisterns, then the Benedictine nuns. In the years 1557-1667 the parish church belonged to the Evangelical community, then it was regained by the Benedictine nuns, who managed the temple until the 19th century. From then to the present day the parish church. Due to the characteristic shape and the many architectural details the church is one of the important examples of brick architecture in the Baltic Sea area. The so-called "mystical crucifix" from the 14th century, comes from the Church of St. Nicholas, which no longer exists.

Due to its location and importance, Benevento was an important base for Roman rule in southern Italy for centuries. After the expansion of the Lombards, Benevento became the seat of Lombard dukes but repeatedly fell into dependence on the Franks and the German emperors. In 840, Benevento was occupied by the Muslims for a few years. The city has been the seat of the Archbishopric of Benevento since 969. In 1047 it fell into the hands of Norman princes with the exception of the city, which Emperor Henry III gave to Leo IX in 1053. In the 11th and 12th centuries, four councils were held in Benevento. On February 26, 1266, in the Battle of Benevento, the Hohenstaufen Manfred, natural son of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, was defeated by Charles of Anjou, after which the latter seized Apulia, Sicily, and Tuscia. Santa Sofia was founded by the Lombard Arechis II of Benevento around 760. The church is a rotunda 28 m in diameter with an original star-shaped outline. The church was modeled on the Palatine Chapel of the Lombard king Liutprand in Pavia and, after the defeat of Desiderius by Charlemagne and the fall of the Lombard kingdom in northern Italy in 774, it became the national church of the Lombards who had taken shelter in the Duchy of Benevento. After the earthquakes of 1688 and 1702, Pope Benedict VIII had the church rebuilt, changing it in the Baroque style. In particular, he had the course of the outer walls made circular. Santa Sofia included a monastery built between 1142 and 1176. Parts of the previous building from the 8th century, destroyed in the earthquake of 986, were reused. These buildings now house the Museo del Sannio. Here are exhibited not only the many Roman remains that have been found, but also more recent works of art, such as this 15th-century crucifix.